Step by Step
1
Austin's performatives
J.L. Austin (1962) identified performatives: utterances that don't just describe something, but actually perform an action simply by being said — promises, declarations, and warnings are classic examples. Saying "I promise to help you" doesn't describe a promise, it creates one.
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The three-part structure of a speech act
Locutionary act: the literal, surface-level meaning of the words spoken. Illocutionary act: the actual social function the utterance performs (promising, threatening, requesting, warning). Perlocutionary act: the actual effect the utterance has on the listener (persuading them, scaring them, getting them to act).
3
Searle's taxonomy of speech acts
John Searle expanded Austin's work into categories: assertives (stating something is true), directives (trying to get someone to do something), commissives (committing the speaker to a future action, like a promise), expressives (expressing an emotional state), and declarations (utterances that immediately change reality by being said, like officially pronouncing a couple married).
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Indirect speech acts
Many requests are phrased indirectly — "Can you pass the salt?" is literally a question about someone's physical ability, but its actual illocutionary force is a request, not a genuine inquiry about capability. Recognizing indirect speech acts is essential for understanding real conversational meaning, not just literal sentence content.
5
Politeness and indirectness
Speakers frequently use indirect speech acts specifically as a politeness strategy — phrasing a request or command indirectly softens its social impact compared to a blunt, direct command.
Applied Walkthrough
1
At a wedding, an officiant says the words "I now pronounce you married." This is a performative utterance in Austin's sense — the couple wasn't married before this sentence, and they are married immediately after it, purely because of the act of saying these specific words in the appropriate context (with proper legal authority, in the right ceremonial setting).
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Compare that to someone at a dinner table saying, "It's a bit cold in here." The locutionary act is a simple statement about temperature.
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The illocutionary act, though, is very likely an indirect request — asking someone to close a window or turn up the heat.
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The perlocutionary act is whatever the listener actually does in response: maybe they get up and close the window, recognizing the real, indirect request behind the literal statement.
Exam Application
Exams test whether you can explain the locutionary/illocutionary/perlocutionary distinction with an example, name Searle's five speech act categories, and why "Can you pass the salt?" is an indirect speech act.
⚠ Common Trap
Don't confuse the illocutionary act with the perlocutionary act — the illocutionary act is the intended social function of the utterance (what it's meant to do), while the perlocutionary act is the actual effect it has on the listener, which might not match the speaker's intention at all.
✓ Quick Self-Check
1. What is a performative utterance, according to Austin?
An utterance that performs an action by being said, rather than merely describing something — such as a promise or a declaration.
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2. Define the three parts of a speech act: locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary.
Locutionary is the literal meaning; illocutionary is the social function performed (promising, requesting, etc.); perlocutionary is the actual effect on the listener.
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3. Name Searle's five categories of speech acts.
Assertives, directives, commissives, expressives, and declarations.
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4. What is an indirect speech act? Give an example.
An utterance whose literal form doesn't match its real social function — e.g., "Can you pass the salt?" is literally a question but functions as a request.
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5. Why do speakers often use indirect speech acts?
As a politeness strategy — indirectness softens the social impact compared to a blunt, direct command.
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